Key
Words
– #womanhood, #Desdemona, #Shakuntala
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Study
of comparative literature aims to trace the transformation and travel of
literary genres and texts across time and space. It also explores the
acquaintances of literature with history, philosophy, politics, and literary
theory. Today the intersection of
literature with other cultural forms such as film, drama, the visual arts, music,
new media etc. has become very popular. In this age of globalized, translation
studies have also become an important part of the comparative approach to
literature. Thus, the comparative study explores literature beyond and across
the boundaries of nations, languages and culture. As a result, the comparative
field is a highly dynamic, interdisciplinary and collaborative attempt. Consequently,
in the age of globalization as we talk about universal feelings and universal
expression, the idea of comparative study is not new. Here, it is appropriate
to mentions that the name of Bankim Chandra. His essay on Shakuntala, Miranda
and Desdemona which appeared in 1873 was in all probability the first
comparative study, between English and Sanskrit Drama.
This
paper attempts to make a comparative study of two important women characters - Desdemona
and Shakuntala. Both belong to difference country, age, religion and culture,
yet present a similar approach in their attitude towards love and duty and are
the personification of womanhood. At this juncture, it will be appropriate to
say a few words that define Womanhood. In a broader sense Womanhood can
roughly be defined as the qualities considered to be natural to or
characteristic of a woman. In west, The
Cult of True Womanhood is a phrase that Barbara Welter uses to define
the prevalent philosophy towards women in America during the mid-19th Century. (The
Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860). This 1966 essay has become a predominant scholastic
source for feminist and deconstructionist literary critics. The philosophy,
which she portrays as a particular set of demands and expectations, is
founded upon four beliefs: Piety, Purity, Submission, and Domesticity.
In fact,
the doctrine of Piety, Purity, Submission, and Domesticity has been the
passageway for women throughout the ages in nearly all parts of the world, and
they continue to hold influence in many cultures and sub-cultures across the world.
The Bible also states-
So
God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and
female he created them. (Genesis 1:27 Holy Bible, New International Version®,
NIV® Copyright ©1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica,
Inc. )
While eastern
views on womanhood are reflected in the words of Swami Vivekananda-
…the
whole force of womanhood is concentrated in motherhood ….The ideal of womanhood
in India is motherhood — that marvelous, unselfish, all-suffering,
ever-forgiving mother.
Women
in Hindu culture have been accorded a respectable status in the society. The
woman was regarded as having an equally important share in the social and
religious life because a man without woman was considered as an inadequate
person. There were women scholars who composed hymns of RigVeda. Lopamudra,
Gargi and Maitreye were the pioneers among them. Lopamudra, the wife of Agasti
rishi, composed two verses of RigVeda. Most of the female characters of
Ramayana and Mahabharata were also well educated and had all freedom. But here
also the quality of purity, innocence, patience, honesty and trust are
considered to be very important.
The character of Desdemona in Othello
by Shakespeare represents a woman of the 17thcentury England, while
Shakuntala in Abijnana Shakuntalam by
Kalidas represent a woman of the 5thcentury India. This comparison
between east and west is quite interesting. Desdemona and Shakuntala both stand
for all that are beautiful in womanhood. Both are epitome of beauty, virtue,
innocence, purity, patience, honesty and trust that is quite typical of the
characteristic that are traditionally given to women in society. Both Desdemona
and Shakuntala risk their honour as a woman for the love of a man, and yet they
would not take one harsh word that goes against her dignity from that man. They
have the softness of the softest flower and yet they are as fierce as fire
itself. They have the strength that knows how to bend. Both have the courage to
trust. And also have silence that knows how to be expressive when the need
arises.
In Othello Desdemona, is introduced as a
coy and blushing girl, who turned away the well-groomed Venetian gallants,
listens in rapt attention to the romantic stories of Othello’s life. Her father describes her as –
|
|
A maiden never bold
Of spirit so still and quite, that her
motion
Blush’d at herself;
(Act I Sc- III)
|
|
|
|
|
In the
same Act Othello also confesses that –
She
love’d me for the dangers I has pass’d,
And I love’d her
that she did pity them
In her choosing of Othello as
her husband, she exercises her own desire, marries him without parental
consent. This is a rather courageous act of will, which could have resulted in
much strife. However, she handles the situation with cleverness. With her
modesty and gentleness are combined firmness of will and clearness of purpose. When
her father questions her about her marriage she answers forcefully, first
pacifying him and then justifying her disobedience on the very grounds of
patriarchal obedience and duty -
. . . My
noble father,
I do perceive here a divided duty.
To you I am bound, for life and education . . .
You are the lord of my duty,
I am hitherto your daughter. But here's my husband,
And so much duty as my mother showed
To you preferring you before her father,
So much I challenge that I may profess
Due to the Moor my lord.
Desdemona thus by her cleverness appears obedient in her disobedience.
Desdemona is also innocent and pure, if she had grasped the worldly
perception, which Emilia has, she might have prevented the disaster. She makes
a blunder in engaging herself to solicit Cassio. Her innocence is such that she
does not have any idea that her action might be misrepresented. A woman of the
world would have taken the hint, but she does not. Iago, in spite of himself,
clearly tells this –
She is so free, so kind, so blessed a disposition,
she holds it a vice in her goodness not do more than she is required
(Act 11 Sc-111)
When she is charged with infidelity she only says –
His unkindness may defeat my life,
But never taint my love.
(Act IV Sc-II)
She seemed to have lived for Othello. Apart from him she has no other
interest in life. Her goodness furthermore is not simply submissive or weak but
an act of will.
The above quote could be said to summarize the character of Desdemona. Her own
words predict her death, yet her love for her husband keeps her from seeing the
truth of this statement.
Desdemona’s refusal to blame Othello for his awful treatment of her, when
he suspects her of betrayal, must not be viewed as simple subservience but as a
determined refusal to accept a bad opinion of the husband she has chosen. She
believes that Othello is incapable of jealousy –
…….My noble Moor
Is true of mind and made of no such baseness
As jealous creatures are …..
(Act III Sc-iv)
When he is behaving shockingly towards her, she refuses to acknowledge his
identity - My lord is not my lord,
she says, should I know him / Were he in
favour as in humour altered. She stands by her acceptance of her love for
him as something sacred, with a martyr-like will-power. That is why she tells Emilia
his unkindness may defeat my life, / But
never taint my love. She thus obeys her own heart rather than patriarchal
rules, extending this determination through to death, so that with her last
breath - when Emilia asks - who hath done
this deed? She replies - Nobody, I
myself. Thus by claiming this death for herself she re-affirms her selfhood
and womanhood. Symbolically she dies for
her love which cannot be tainted. Her death can perhaps be seen as an act of pativrata women.
Accordingly,
Desdemona is an embodiment of the perfect woman. She is loyal and trusting,
innocent and pure, and her inner beauty is only matched by her outer
experience. Her somewhat native personality nevertheless, leaves her exposed to
the more worldly persons, those who have learned how to take advantage of
others through experience. What at the outset attracts many to Desdemona ultimately
proves to be her downfall, and her inexperience with the tribulations of the
world leads to her demise.
Likewise,
Shakuntala also stands as a personification of sweetness and strength. Bred in
the ashram, amid nature, there is innate simplicity and purity in her
character. She yields to impulse of love, yet with the maiden’s modesty would
rather suffer in silence than speak of her passion. She is trustful, forgiving
and kind to her husband, in spite of the cruelest breach of confidence.
Shakuntala
is the gracious ashram hostess who receives the honored visitor Dushyanta who
has just entered Saint Kanva’s ashram. She is Kanva’s adopted daughter; she is
born to sage Vishwamitra and the beautiful Apsara Menaka. Beautiful and pious Shakuntala is fascinated
by the grace and charm of Dushyanta. He is also mesmerized by her beauty.-
The meanest
ventures glows
On beauty that
enchants:
The lotus lovelier
shows
Admid dull
water-plants;
The moon in added
splendor
Shines for its
sport of dark;
Yet more the
maiden slender
Charms in her
dress of bark
(Act I)
King Dushyanta as he sees Shakuntala for the first time from
behind the trees, he says-
A
lotus is beautiful even if it is in the midst of muck; the blemish on
the moon, despite its darkness, only highlights the moon’s lustre;
her simple bark attire only enhances the loveliness of this maiden.
Indeed, what will not serve as a decoration for something that is intrinsically
beautiful? (Act I)
Priyamvada observing Shakuntala standing near the mango tree
says that she looks like a vine by the side of the tree. King Dushyanta finds
this remark appropriate –
Her
arms are tender shoots; her lips
Are
blossoms red and warm;
Bewitching
youth begins to flower
In
beauty on her form.
He is
struck by her rare charm and they secretly marry – gandharave vivaha.
This
young woman who grew up in an ashram does not know what fear is. She does not
know what disloyalty is, what flaw is. She has received the best possible
upbringing, in an atmosphere of love, compassion, truth and fearlessness. When
she arrives at the royal place, she does not care she is standing in the court
of a powerful king. She is not bothered that the king’s ministers and nobles
are listening to her.
In the
Fifth Act, when she is openly discarded by the king as he does not remember
having married her, she never for once loses her love for her husband, and does
not fail to remember her duties as a married woman towards him. She leads an ascetic’s
life during her separation, ever keeping the image of her beloved husband in
her heart. Her patience is skillfully demarcated here. She does not lose her valor
at the King’s denial. Controlling her feelings, she graciously and patiently
tries her best to remind Dushyanta of the earlier incidents. She blames her fate
and misfortune for her disappointment and never utters a word against her
husband.
She
also is full of self- respect, she tells Dushyanta that she has not come to him
for his charity as she does not need any of it. What she demands is justice and
what is hers by right. In fact, she herself does not need even that. She is
perfectly willing to go back to the ashram from where she has come, as she knows
that she will always be welcome there. She does not care for the comforts of
the palace as such things do not lure her. She needs just one thing - that his
child to be acknowledged as his. And she warns him of dire consequences if he
ignored her.
Only
once and that too when Dushyanta passes a remark about her morals, and the
morals of her family that she loses her tempers and calls her husband Anarya. Accordingly, she is capable and demonstrates
high sense of self-respect and courage to suffer. In the Sixth Act, the
discovery of the ring paves the way for the re-union. Here she is ready to
forgive her husband. In the last Act of the play when Dushyanta sees Shakuntala,
and is full of praise for her devotion and purity -
In
a dusty apparel, grey appearing
With a face penance,
impaired;
with hair unknotted;
So unkind as I was, yet chaste her bearing
From myself, parted so long, remains devote
Contrary
to expectations, the handkerchief in Othello
and the ring in Shakuntalam are the
two symbols that lead the two women protagonists to their terrible destiny. A
gift of true, honest, faithful love by Othello to Desdemona, and Dushyanta to
Shakuntala, ultimately becomes a sign of mistrust, and insecurity. Othello and
Dushyanta are willing to commit the most horrible of crimes based not upon
facts, but upon their faulty interpretation of reality. Both Desdemona and
Shakuntala face the destiny because of the gift of love given to them by their
beloved. Desdemona is doomed to die while Shakuntala is doomed for an exile.
They suffer without any fault of theirs, but in their suffering also they do
not compromise on the grace, elegance, honor and duty – the most sought of
qualities assigned to womanhood. Bankim Chandra in his essay on Shakuntala,
Miranda and Desdemona, praises Desdemona for her unswerving loyalty to her
husband and calls her true pativrata.
He also says that while Shakuntala was a garden, Desdemona in the depth and
complexity of her characterization, was an ocean.
Nonetheless
the characters also point out to the fact that purity of a woman has always
been a highly prized virtue, both in Eastern and Western cultures. Both women
protagonists belong to different country, age, religion and culture. They are
epitome of beauty, virtue, innocence, purity, patience, honesty and trust that
is quite typical of the characteristic that are traditionally given to women in
society. Consequently, study of both the characters reveals that there are more
similarities than differences between their attitudes towards life and love and
duty. Love, honor, duty may have different meaning in both cultures but they
have corresponding aspirations.
I would
like to end my paper by a statement by Barbara Welter in "The Cult of True
Womanhood: 1820-1860" (1966) that again pauses another question and may promote
a different type of comparison and research -
Real
women often felt they did not live up to the ideal of True Womanhood…… change
and continuity, the True Woman evolved into the New Woman—a transformation as
startling in its way…….. she had the best of both worlds—power and virtue—and
that a stable order of society depended upon her maintaining her traditional
place in it. To that end she was identified with everything that was beautiful
and holy…
Reference –
1. http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_8/lectures_and_discourses/women_of_india.htm
2. Nancy.F.
Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood (New Haven, Conn., 1977)
3. http://shakespeare.mit.edu/othello/full.html
4. The Shakuntala Epoch in European romanticism and
Indian Classicism
(Synthesis, I, 1974, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, pp.187-192)
5. Ryder,
Arthur W. (Arthur William), 1877-1938, trans.: Translations of Shakuntala,
and Other Works.
Published in - Approaching Shakespeare through comparative literature , Saurashtra University Publication, ISBN: 978-93-5291-723-5, First Edition-2017.
