BHARTIA (INDIAN) FEMINISM

 

 

BHARTIA (INDIAN) FEMINISM

Today let’s celebrate the universality of women's rights and the rich heritage of feminist thought. While the struggle for equality may be shared by women across the globe, the stories we tell and the solutions we seek are as diverse as we are. Well as such the women’s issues and feminism are universal but does one Western narrative of the Left and Liberal Westerners define all?

Here in Bharat -India, a land with a vibrant civilization stretching back eras, we have our own powerful narratives of female empowerment. From the Pancha Pativratas who defied convention to, the male Gods are known by their spouses, Umapati, Lakshmipati, and Sitapati, our traditions celebrate strength and independence.

Yet, these powerful stories have sometimes been overlooked or dismissed. The dominant narratives of feminism do not always reflect the full spectrum of women's experiences. We must celebrate the voices of Draupadi, the original feminist, Sita, the single mother, Savitri, who outsmarted death itself, and Saraswati, who challenged societal norms.

Let us break free from binary thinking and embrace the multitude of experiences that shape the fight for equality. Today, we reclaim our own narratives and weave them into the grand tapestry of global feminism. As such, India's take on women's rights is different. Here, it's not about strict opposites like "good" and "bad." It's more like circles within circles, all connected and balanced with nature and the universe.

Some experts say organized religions with strict rules might have changed how women were treated over time. But that's a whole different story compared to the West's way of seeing things, which is often too simple and does not capture the full  Bhartia picture.

Science shows that Bhartia civilization is quite old, way older than Western countries! We were rocking it while they were still figuring out how to use rocks. This also blows away the idea that Aryans invaded India, a theory based on guesses more than facts. The West has been talking about women's rights for a hundred years or so, but Bharat’s story is much deeper and goes way back.

Well as such, thinking about history helps us understand where we are with women's rights today. Are things getting better or worse? Have we learned from the past? These are important questions for people who study history and write about women's rights. It's a shame that authentic discussions about this are not always happening, especially in politics. Unfortunately, such clarity and honesty are seldom found, especially within today’s political and social discourse.

Since Independence, women in Bharat have faced several challenges, although positive developments have also occurred. Sadly, such instances of advancement of women’s rights in the last seven decades have been limited. Contrasting this with the last decade of our republic reveals a remarkable difference. The period has seen a range of policies and initiatives that empower and educate women, nurturing a path toward self-sufficient womanhood. The transformative initiatives of the past decade reflect a positive course, demonstrating that important steps have been taken toward addressing and solving women’s rights in contemporary India.

Evaluating the situation of women in India today involves considering multiple metrics, and one crucial aspect is their ability to choose and pursue diverse fields. Women’s participation in science, technology, military, business, trade, education, health care, artistic endeavors, and other domains illustrates the expanding ability of women to choose and excel in various professional spheres. We see several “First Female” landmarks in different organizations, ranging from Jawaharlal Nehru University getting the first female Vice-Chancellor to India getting the first female Defence, Finance, and Foreign Ministers.

These are no ordinary examples but are representative of women’s increased participation in the workplace. And for the first time, one sees women participating increasingly as managers and leaders. It’s also essential to recognize that the trajectory of women’s rights today, summarized under Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s clarion call of “women-led development”, is distinct from the radical feminist movements in the West. The successful launch of ISRO's Chandrayaan-3 mission is a historic event, and behind this achievement also lies the significant contribution of many prominent women scientists.

Unlike approaches in postcolonial societies that insist on dividing genders, today’s empowerment philosophy in Bharat focuses on embracing and fostering inclusivity and acceptance. The emphasis is not on empowering and supporting one gender at the expense of another, but on creating an ecosystem where all can coexist and function harmoniously. The government explicitly acknowledges and draws attention to India’s civilizational heritage, rooted in thousands of years of learning, which views women as Janinis (creators).

Yet, what remains concerning is that despite efforts to create an inclusive ecosystem for women’s empowerment, there are still instances where a regressive mentality seeks to suppress women and promote divisive identity politics.

Issues related to women cannot be misused for political gains. Women, as the sacred thread of origin, deserve honorable existence, and playing politics with their honor and lives in the balance is morally disgraceful. As a society, we have witnessed the dark ages of foreign Muslim invaders, and it seems we are not learning the proper lessons from history. Sacrificing respect and social values that historically placed women at the center of political plans and cheap tricks to secure votes is a scary trend.

The respect for women, their bodies, and their choices should not be subjects for debates or political manipulation; instead, they are fundamental foundations of a vibrant and prosperous society and nation.

India is large and diverse. The stories of feminism are likewise different. What however binds them is a history. Questions of culture, community identity, and scriptural sanctions have been very much part of how the women’s question emerged in India. Thus, the concept of feminism raises fundamental queries about reading, writing, and the teaching of literature. It operates as an interdisciplinary tool for social and cultural analysis and as a political practice. Feminism has transformed the precision of life and literature.

Feminism is multicultural and diasporic. The needs of women who live in different countries are dissimilar, and they are conditioned by several factors: familial, societal/racial, marital, economic, cultural, and individual consciousness (subjectivity). In such a diverse context, it would be far wrong to associate Indian feminism with the West, which is marked by radical norms, and invoke Western feminist critics on the problems that women in India confront.

Indian feminism is different from Western feminism in the sense that it has never been aggressive or militant like its European counterparts perhaps because it did not have to face much opposition. At the same time, it must be admitted that the role of Indian women in modern times has been full of contradictions. On one hand, we hear of the glorious and enviable position of women in the Vedic age while on the other, we see everywhere that political social, or economic equality is still lacking. Well as such, things have and are changing though slowly.

Human equality is a mark of human society, in civil society, there must be respect for human rights, and the right to equality is a fundamental right. In contemporary society, we are rights-oriented and therefore we talk in terms of human rights, women’s rights, etc. but the Vedic view is basically different from this standpoint in that it is not right-based rather it is duty-based. A social structure based on duty-consciousness is naturally more harmonious and without conflict.

It is a sustainable democratic society where there is an inevitable need for mutual care, regard, and consideration. The Vedas teach us to be humans and not ‘he-man’s and she-man’s’. In fact, human right is fake without human dignity and human dignity is above gender bias.

In the West, during the Renaissance period, there was a revolt against social inequality, and in the French Revolution, the three ideas of equality, liberty, and justice were prominently put forth. But unfortunately, no attention was paid to equality between men and women. All the promotion and protection of women’s rights have been mostly usurped by menfolk despite talks of equality, liberty, and justice. As we talk about women empowerment, we have to be very cautious and careful, so that it may not turn into a political slogan only. Empowerment should be facilitated along with suitable opportunities and conducive conditions.

In Vedic society, there was no need for any such talks as it was a gender-just, duty-oriented society. But in the present scenario, when the social mindset is right-oriented, we have to talk about empowerment.  Well as such, in human history the status of women has been relegated to a subordinate position and her role confined to the private, rather than public, the reproductive rather than productive.

It is at this crucial point that the holistic philosophy of the Vedas comes to rescue according to which both male and female are inevitably complementary to one another and work together in harmony. The question of gender justice is a double-edged, open, and universal question that involves its so-called oppositional elements, that is both male and female. It is both a man's and a woman’s problem as well as a human problem. The hurdle is not the legal framework but the non-conductive mindset. Thus, the need of the hour is to change the mindset. The lag between the theory and practice of equality is still there.  Bharat -India is among the few countries where the proportion of women in the total population is smaller than men.

 Modernization and development in India can be messy. We often overlook our own rich history and simply copy Western ideas, creating a confusing mix of influences. This is especially true when it comes to the complex problems faced by Indian women today. These challenges arise from the clash between old and new ways of life, where modernization brings both positive and negative changes.

In such a scenario we can look towards the past for inspiration. Studying ancient Indian traditions like Vedic feminism, which emphasized equal partnership between men and women, might offer unique solutions to contemporary issues. Vedic feminism is not just a theoretical concept; it is a way of life where everyone works together as equals.

Instead of solely relying on protests and collective action, we should be focusing on individual self-improvement, and developing a deeper understanding of gender issues is also crucial. By combining collective action with personal growth, we can approach the pursuit of gender justice more holistically and effectively.

 Traditional Hindu texts can be classified into Srutis and Smritis. Before the arrival of the printing, lessons in Hinduism were verbally transmitted (learning by hearing or Sruti) by the sages to their disciples through an immaculately preserved system of Gurukul and these lessons were later recorded in the form of Vedas, Upanisads, and others.

Vedas are the earliest texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit. Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva are the four Vedas. Each of which is further subdivided into Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aryanakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices), and Upanishads (text on meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge).

 

Vedic Age – Feminism

Vedic feminism is characterized by a spiritual outlook which is at the core of Vedic philosophy. Women here are depicted as carving for eternal and immortal knowledge rather than material and mundane things. The women in those days had free and fair access to education and they even had the courage and conviction to challenge the intellectual giants like sage Yajnavalkya. (याज्ञवल्क्य)

The names of stains like Gargi and Maitreyi are very well known in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (बृहदाण्यकोपनिषत् ). The searching cross-examination of Yajnavalkya by Gargi shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a higher order. In English wife is better half, better half means – well we all know good, better, best – comparative degree. This better half in Sanatana is ‘ardhangini’. that’s why it’s said तदेतत् अर्धद्विदलं भवति --this is vision of Vedas.

Sage Gargi asks the question to Brhadaranyaka “if woman is a subject (विषय) then men is also a subject in the eyes of a woman -What is the meaning of a subject – a thing – as such it is something that I can use and is attractive to me”. The discussion continues.

As such, there are no signs of disparity between the sexes at this level, no gender bias is visible here. Women participated in the learned assemblies as well as in battles. There are more than 20 female seers of Vedic hymns mentioned in the ‘Brhaddevata.’ There are good many passages in the Rigveda that are sufficient to prove that women enjoyed equal rights with men in the early Vedic periods. They were not denied any rights and were regarded with due respect in every sphere of life, they were not subjected to any of the merciless laws of an unsympathetic society.

From this point of view, women do not seem to be standing on a hostile base, rather they are portrayed as essential complementary to men. This idea is very much reflected in the later metaphysical conceptions of Prakriti and Purush put forth by the Samkhya system of Indian philosophy. Well, we may ask -Why is Purush masculine and Prakriti feminine? - Prakriti is nature and Purush is mind. When we use the word nature it is used to denote everything external and material. So, the entire universe can be called nature. Nature is considered feminine and the mind is considered masculine. Now, however, we may ask - why is the mind not considered feminine and nature masculine? The obvious reason might be that the mind is considered superior in the world around us, so this classification also, in the end, proves gender hierarchy.

But in actuality inner mind and outer nature have a complex relationship with each one calming to be superior, depending on which school of thought one refers to. There is a specific reason why the mind is considered masculine and outer culture and nature is considered feminine. Just as the male reproductive power needs the female body in order to give birth to an offspring, the idea in our mind needs the external resources of the world in order to bring them to fruition.

Humans develop culture using resources from nature. these resources are what mostly constitute nature in Hinduism and this nature is always represented through the goddess. The earth is Bhoomi Devi, wealth and minerals are represented by Laksmi, knowledge of various skills is represented by Saraswati, and warfare weapons and protecting oneself is represented by Durga.

So, wealth, power, and knowledge are feminine embodied by Laxmi Durga and Saraswati, respectively. There is also a difference between wild nature and domesticated culture which are represented by Kali and Gauri respectively. Kali is wild and uncontrollable while Gauri is calm and domesticated. The human mind that is masculine wants to convert the wild Kali into adorable and calm Gauri, thus making culture from nature.

In Sanatana Dharam Brahma is the creator of culture - Culture is created when nature is domesticated. Men domesticate nature and create a culture for their own pleasure but owe their existence to nature. And thus, Brahma who tries to control nature is never worshiped. While Shiva withdraws from culture. He is withdrawn from nature also. He just sits and meditates and does not care about anything in the world. so, the goddess comes to Shiva and urges him to become a householder and engage with the world. So, Shiva becomes Shankar. Shiva who wants to withdraw from the Goddess is willingly welcomed by the Goddess. Shiva is the destroyer of the world by withdrawing from it but it’s because of the Goddess that he becomes the protector of the world.

Here Vishnu is in culture but feels responsible for the goddess. In ancient stories and tradition, the goddess is his mother, wife, sister, daughter, or lover. He takes care of her and thus he is the preserver. He maintains the balance between controlling and rejecting nature and that attempt is shown through his various avatars. So, worship of a female deity does not mean worship of the female gender but instead, the metaphysical concepts that are explained using the female metaphor. Similarity worship of a male deity does not mean worship of the male gender but instead the metaphysical concept which is explained using the male metaphor.

Consequently, the external world like wealth power, and knowledge are feminine embodied by Laksmi Durga and Saraswati. They belong to no one, yet the masculine mind wants to control them like Brahma, while Shiva rejects it all and Vishnu enjoys it without controlling. ( Rf - Devdutt Patnayak)

Metaphorically we have to understand this. There are metaphors everywhere in Indian scriptures. According in Hinduism, the word is made of Prakriti and Purusha.

The idea of Sakti and Saktiman enunciated in Indian mythology does not envisage any difference in the sexes, but it is the relation of the total identity or inseparability – none can do without the other, this is the core of Indian feminism which led to the concept of ‘Ardhanareisvara’.

In fact, Vedic philosophy does not conceive any sort of discrimination between man and women since as per the Vedic cosmogony, the supreme being divided himself into two equal halves for their creation. Therefore, males and females are like two parts of the same substance, two sides of the same reality.

In Hinduism muscularity and femineity are not associated with literary genders. There are a group of qualities that have been classified into 2 types and can be shown by any gender. Masculinity generally refers to the human desire to dominate and be the alpha. In the positive sense, it protects and in a negative sense, it controls. While femineity is associated with nourishment. In the positive sense, it consumes others. So, in the Indian scenario what constitutes masculinity and femininity in spirit and in form, is a wide fluid spectrum. This spectrum can be explained by examining the qualities of Hindu gods and goddesses and classifying them under masculinity and femininity respectively.

In comparison to Vishnu, Shiva appears very masculine. But among Vishnu’s avatars Ram and Parshuram appears masculine while Krishan appears feminine. Also, Krishana cowherd form is more feminine than Krishan’s charioteer form. But the cowheard Krishan who kills Sheshnag and also does wrestling is more masculine than the flute playing and dancing Krishana. Murlidhar Krishan is more feminine than Gopal Krishana, who in turn is more feminine than Sarthi Krishana.

We see a spectrum of masculinity and femininity in all the major gods. As such all the female forms are not equally feminine. Durga and Kali, who seem wild, terrifying, and uncontrollable, appear very masculine, while Gauri and Lakshmi are more feminine. Thus, males can be feminine and females can be masculine. So only after understanding how gender is used as a metaphor, we will be fully able to appreciate the ideas that Hindu mythology and spiritual texts communicated.

Women are even said to be the creator of the world, she is noble, pious, and worthy. She has full freedom to choose her husband, and this means that she was married at a mature age, and child marriage was not prevalent. She was an equal partner in family as well as public life. She was called ‘Sahachari’ and not ‘Anuchari’.

Marriage in the Vedi age is a fulfillment of the highest goal in life, it is therefore designated as ‘Asrama’ meaning total functional dedication to the cause of familial and religious duties. It is a wife who symbolizes the house and not vice versa. It is in this background that she is called ‘Samrajni’ - meaning a perfect illuminate/Empress of the house. Marriage was deemed as a religious duty, and hence as a rule the husband could not perform any religious ceremony without his wife. In fact, he is incomplete until he unites with his wife. She is designated as ‘Dharmapatni’ whereas the husband is merely a ‘Grhapati’. Not only that, he cannot even desire to ascend to heaven also.

Thus, women are viewed not as a thing of pleasure but as a partners in all social family, and religious duties. Hence the scope for subjugation or exploitation is never there. It is a relationship of harmony and sharing. Her basic role is of homemaker, but various names and epithets are used to denote a woman. It is very interesting to derive the exact meaning of different roles to understand the position women held – e.g she is Jaya, Jani, and Patni . Of these, Jaya is the woman who gives birth to one's progeny, Jani is the mother of children and Patni is the co-partner in the religious duties.

Similarly, women are designated as Aditi - because she is not dependent, Aghnya - for she is not to be hurt, Brhati, for she is large-hearted, Chandra - because she is happy, Devakama- she is pious. Devi- since she is divine, Dhruva- for she is firm, Havya-because she is worthy of invocation, Ida -for she is worshipable, Jyota- because she is illuminating: bright, Kamya- because she is lovable, Kshama - for she is tolerant, indulgent, patient,Mahi - since she is great, Mena- because she deserves respect, Nari-for she is not inimical to anyone, Purandhih- for she is munificent, liberal. 

She is also Ranta- because she is lovely, Sarasvati -since she is scholarly, Shiva-for she is benevolent, Shivatama -since she is the noblest, Stri - since she is modest, and many more. There are various Women Rshis (Rshika) in the Rig Veda Samhita and one or more mantras were revealed to each Rshika -

Verse	Rishika
4.18	Aditi
10.72	Aditirdakshayani
8.91	Apala Atreyi
10.86	Indrani
10.85	Urvashi
10.134	Godha
10.39, 10.40	Gosha Kakshivati
10.109	Juhurbramhajaya
10.184	Tvashta Garbhakarta
10.107	Dakshina Prajapatya
10.154	Yami
10.10	Yami Vaivasvati
10.127	Ratrirbharadvaji
1.171	Lopamudra
10.28	Vasukrapatni
10.125	Vagambhrni
5.28	Vishvavara Atreyi
8.1	Sashvatyangirasi
10.151	Shradhda Kamayani
10.159	Shachi Paulomi
10.189	Sarparajni
9.86	Sikata Nivavari
10.85	Surya Savitri
1.126	Romasha
10.108	Sarama Devashuni
9.104	Shikhandinyava Psarasau Kashyapan
10.142	Jarita Sharngah
8.71	Suditirangirasah
10.153	Indra Mataro

(The list is not exhaustive)

So now the question that we ask is how did the Hindu society become Patriarchal and misogynistic?

The biggest factors of early patriarchs in Bharat are linked to the monastic or hermit traditions of Buddhism and Jainism. In the earliest monasteries of the Viharas of Buddha, women were not allowed to enter. The reason for it is pure misogyny. The role of monastic tradition is to go away from nature to something more transcendental and women are considered inferior because they tempt or distract men from reaching that transcendental state of mind.

Consequently, in order to keep women away from monasteries, various logics were given like the female body is considered inferior to the male body because the male body can retain semen in itself through mind control while the female body has to shed menstrual blood which is outside of mind control. As time passed, women were slowly allowed to enter the monasteries but still, they had to follow a lot more rules than men and still were not allowed in special parts of the building. Accordingly, this was the beginning of systematic patriarchal and misogyny in India -Bharat.

Sanatan Culture- the culture, has always been a pro-women culture. We have various examples of eminent women personalities in Indian literature and culture. As such The ArdhNaresvar Swaroop is the best example of gender equality in Sanatan Culture. It is a fact that even after independence we never had to fight for the right to vote, whereas British women and American women had to do it.

In the Vedic Age, we have the e.g. of Apala and Jabala a reflection, a mirror of Sanatan ancient thinking process and approach. Apala is a character mentioned in Rig Ved. Her Husband discarded her when he discovered that she was suffering from skin disease. After doing Surya Upasana she is completely cured, learning about her cure her husband approaches her with a request to come back but she refuses - A woman has a right to refuse and choose her path, her self-esteem and self-respect is an example for all.

Another example is Jabala, the mother of Stayakama - from Sam Ved. When Stayakama goes to Gurukul ( school) he is asked his father’s name and information about his Gotra. Consequently, he goes to his mother to inquire about the same - at that time Jabala confesses that she is unaware of Stayakama's father’s name. Stayakama goes back to the Gurukul and reported the same to Gautam Rishi. It was this truthfulness on his part that gave him admission to the Gurukul. Well as such, a child without marriage is also accepted, because motherhood is respected.

In the Vedic Age, other career options, apart from literary activities and the household economy, also appear to have been extended to women. These include teaching, music, and dancing as well as martial pursuits. Female warriors like Shashiyasi, Vadhrimati, Vishpala, Danu, and Sarama are described as taking part in actual fighting on the battlefield [Rig Veda]. Furthermore, women could, if they so choose, remain unmarried (Amajur).

The position of the women which was equal in the early Vedic period, later had a downward trend in the later Vedic period. It is believed that foreign conquest was the main reason for the decline of women’s status in that era. 

Women in the Later Vedic Period

The two great Indian epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.  During this period Womanhood was idealized as an honorable position both in and outside the home. The ancient Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata showed women as super important -

• Women were seen as the foundation of three things: Following the right path (dharma), happiness (pleasure), and success (prosperity).
• A wife is like a queen: In charge of the household and respected by everyone in her husband's family - “the bride is designated as the queen of the house whose position is supreme above all the members of the groom’s family.”
• Strong women characters: Examples like Sita, Draupadi, Kaikeyi, Rukmini, Sabitri, and Satyabhama show that women in these epics could be brave, determined, and play important roles in society.

In the Ramayaṇa, ideal womanhood was well illustrated as glorifying the value of Pativratya (devotion to one’s husband) and has also idealized Sita as the “best of aspect of Indian heritage”. Sita has been symbolized as a devoted wife in the Ramayaṇa, representing the ideal character that all women were expected to strive towards.

Women possessed unconditional economic freedom during the Epic civilization period, while the Mahabharata upheld the religious importance of the mother in the betterment of the family. As Ganguli indicated (1883–1896), the character as well as the contribution of the mothers, that is, Gaṅgā, Gāndhārī, Pārvatī, Uttarā, and Kuntī, towards their families’ benediction was considered worth mentioning in the Mahabharata.

Women were given higher roles and positions in war, during the Epic period of Indian civilization. The Epic period in India (roughly 5th century BCE to 4th century CE) depicted some women playing active and crucial roles in warfare.

·       Sita in the Ramayana: Though not a direct combatant, Sita's resilience and unwavering spirit served as a powerful motivator for Rama's fight against Ravana. Her abduction sparked the entire war, and her unwavering spirit fueled Rama's determination. Bhagavan Parshuram had gifted her his Dhanush (Bow), this itself shows her active knowledge of warfare.

·       Kaikeyi, the Warrior Queen: Queen Kaikeyi, mother of Bharata, is an often-overlooked example of a female warrior in the Ramayana. While the epic doesn't detail extensive battlefield exploits, Kaikeyi's training and prowess in warfare are alluded to. She was the princess of the warlike Kekeya kingdom, known for its skilled archers and warriors. It's reasonable to assume she received martial training and possessed combat skills.

·     Draupadi in the Mahabharata: Draupadi's public humiliation at the hands of the Kauravas was a major catalyst for the Kurukshetra war. While not a physical warrior herself, her plight became a rallying cry for the Pandavas.

·       Abhimanyu's Wife - Uttara: Though not directly a warrior herself, Uttara played a crucial role in the Mahabharata. After Abhimanyu's death, she was pregnant with his son, the future Kuru prince. The Kauravas attempted to kill the unborn child, but with Krishna's divine intervention, Uttara safely delivered the baby, ensuring the continuation of the Pandava lineage.

·       Women Warriors: Epics also mention other female warriors directly engaging in combat. One example is Uloopi, wife of Arjuna in the Mahabharata, who was a skilled serpent princess known for her archery and underwater warfare.

·       Defending the Homefront: Women weren't just on the battlefield. They played a vital role in managing the kingdom, raising armies, and providing logistical support during wartime. They also often defended the city walls and forts in the absence of male warriors.

As such, Swayamvara was a common type of marriage depicted in the epics. Women in this traditional type of marriage were reported to exercise their freedom and autonomy to choose their life partners. Through Swayamvara, Sita from the Ramayana and Draupati from the Mahabharata were married.

The Jainism and Buddhism Period (600 BC–200 BC)

• Education and Religion: Both religions encouraged women to learn and participate in religious activities. Women could even become nuns (bhikkhunis in Buddhism, sadhvis in Jainism).
• Monastic Life: Women weren't limited to housework. They could choose to leave their families and dedicate themselves to spiritual studies.
• Leadership: Some Buddhist nuns even wrote religious texts and some women excelled in arts and literature. There were even female leaders of nun communities.
• Social Participation: Women could take part in social events and contribute to society.
• Limitations: While both religions offered freedoms, women were mostly excluded from politics and business.

As such, Jainism and Buddhism offered women more opportunities for learning, religion, and leadership compared to other cultures of the time. However, they still faced limitations in the economic and political spheres.

Buddhism in its initial years asserted that Nirvana (highest goal) was possible for women and so created the Buddhist Sangha. On one occasion when the king of Kosala was having a conversation with the Buddha, the news was brought to him that his queen, Mallika, had borne him a daughter. Noticing that the king was distressed, the Buddha remarked, “Do not be perturbed O King, a female child may prove even a better offspring than a male, for she may grow up wise and virtuous.”

During this period women came to enjoy more equality and greater respect than ever given to them, although the activities were confined within certain spheres are mainly domestic social and religious their position in general began to improve. The Buddha's advice to the King Pasenadi of Kosala, who was a close devotee of his, clearly shows that Buddhism does not consider the birth of a daughter as a cause for worry and despair. He preached his teachings to both men and women without any discrimination. He was of the view that women are equally intelligent and capable to shoulder any responsibility entrusted to them with efficiency. Women were given the freedom to marry the person of their own choice. As a mother, she was honoured, and respected. A widow was allowed to participate in all the domestic festivities and was not considered an ill omen any longer. Buddhism does not restrict either the educational opportunities of women or their religious freedom.

There are many Upasikas like Visakha, Sumana, Malliki, Khujjuttara, Sujata, and Suppiya who had important roles in the spread of Buddhism. Buddhist women have been credited for their contributions to the growth of literature. They wrote drama, songs, and prayers in the Palli language. Therigatha is a unique contribution of Buddhist women to the history of Indian poetic literature.

On the other hand, The Buddhist texts reflect a contradictory picture; The Buddhist Texts represent the stereotypical understanding of women whose life was supposed to revolve around their husbands. The texts also reflected that women were inferior, sinful, and a source of contamination to men. Buddha in the beginning was not ready to admit women into the Sangha.

Jainism, a religion of religious equality, is devoted to recognizing the rights of all living creatures. Accordingly, it accepts that women are able to play their part in attaining liberation. But for some Jains, a woman's very femaleness creates spiritual inequality. There are two major divisions in Jains as Digambara and Swetambara. The attitude of each sect is different.

Women in Jainism are treated within the same code of ethics as that is prescribed for men. As per Jainism both men and women are supposed to play their common roles of helping each other, working for the common welfare of all humanity, and protecting the environment. Each is responsible for his/her moral conduct. Jainism considers men and women as equals. In reality because of the gender stereotyping that has taken place for thousands of years in a patriarchal society and the inherent biological differences between men and women, the roles prescribed for men and women are different, especially in a social and cultural setup. Mahavira did not keep community life as an exclusive privilege of men. He also permitted it to a be right for women. He organized his followers into four Orders monks and nuns lay men and lay women. Women were a part of Jain monastic orders, there were several female renounces. One among them was Candanbala, a female renounced during the period of Mahavira and she is said to lead an order of women.

The sects of Jainism on the other handheld debated for more than a millennium over the position of women. The central debates were over the issue of whether women can achieve salvation and on clothing. Since the Digambara sect stressed giving up on clothing as it counted as a material possession, the question of women following nudity was a matter of concern. The female anatomy restricted women to undertake the rigorous ascetic life required by the Jaina monks. For the Shvetambaras, wearing or not wearing clothes was optional. The monks and nuns took the same vows and were on par with each other.

The Age of Dharmasastras, Manusmṛiti and other texts (200 BC–647 AD)

Manu-Smriti is considered the lighthouse of Indian Dharmashastra. But it is misleading to consider Manu-Smriti a center point. There are several books and literature available on Dharmashastra from ancient times. The famous commentaries on Yajnavalkya-Smriti are Visvarupa, Vijnanesvara, Apararka, Sulapani, and Mitramisra.

The text of Manu has been boldly interpolated over the centuries and there are many contradictions and irregularities. As such there are approximately 50 different manuscripts of Manu dating from the 2nd century BCE and they are often inconsequential and unsystematic, but we can glean several rights the text bequeaths to women -

1. Women have the right to ownership of property. (M 3:52, 8:29, 9:194)
2. Women must be financially empowered and given the management of their husband’s finances (M9:11)
3. Sexual equality with men – mutual fidelity demanded (M9:101,102)
4. Have the right to respect and dignity (M3:55)
5. Should always be protected (M9:3)
6. The right to employment (M7:125)
7. Women who are barren, single, widowed, or sick are entitled to state support (M8:28)
8. Women are entitled to be witnesses (8:70)
9. Women should never be violated (M8:349)
10. Women have the right to equal participation in all religious duties (M9:96)
11. Entitled to freedom of movement and must always be given the right of way (M2:138)

Ancient India was not always the same for women. While they initially enjoyed more freedom and education, things changed around 1500 BC to 647 AD. A set of laws in Manusmriti limited their access to education and imposed stricter rules on their lives. This decline in women's rights stemmed from several factors. The new laws themselves played a role, but so did a growing emphasis on a rigid social order, the rise of the caste system, and even foreign invasions. Despite these limitations, women's stories remain an important part of India's ancient history.

The discussion continues …….